Software Vault: The Gold Collection/Software Vault - The Gold Collection (American Databankers) (1993).ISO/cdr49/288_01.zip/KNAUSS.TXT

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A Poor Man's Solution to the Traveling Salesman Problem

Kevin E Knauss

12 Mar 89

Given a map and a means of transportation, a competent traveling
salesman can pick a reasonable route to all his customers. The route he
picks needn't be optimal just practical. In this article, we'll explore
a hypothetical salesman's intuitive approach to finding a practical
route to all his customers and its implementation in the C programming
language. In an attempt to find elegant optimal solutions to tough
problems, we often overlook solutions which appear to be rather
"brutish." Upon closer inspection, however, we see that these solutions
are more elegant than they appear and, better yet, they work!

BACKGROUND

Routing and scheduling problems are inherently difficult to solve
because they often require total enumeration of all possible outcomes.
As the number of data points in the problem increases, the possible
outcomes increase exponentially. With the Traveling Salesman Problem
(TSP) for instance, studies have shown that an algorithm which yields an
exact solution is relatively infeasible for networks containing in
excess of 100 points. In fact, there are problems with as few as 48
cities for which the best answer found has not been proven to be
optimal. By using heuristics of various types, one is enabled to find
feasible (though not necessarily optimal) solutions to these otherwise
"unsolvable" problems.

The TSP simply stated is: "A salesman, starting in one city, wishes to
visit each n─1 other cities once and only once and return to the start.
In what order should he visit the cities to minimize the total distance
traveled?" (8) This may seem too trivial a task to have generated active
research for over three decades (the literature I've researched goes
back to 1958), but there are many practical applications for the
solution of this basic problem. Automated drilling machines and the
newer laser drills used to drill printed circuit boards, for example,
may have hundreds or thousands of holes to drill and often spend as much
time traveling to a position for a hole as they do drilling it.
Programming efficient head travel for these machines could make the
difference for a company to turn a profit or loss. Solve the more basic
TSP, and the marginal printed circuit board company may be able to stay
in business by applying the same techniques.

The TSP is one which is, to quote an old cliche, "easier said than
done." That is, it is easy to explain the problem but difficult to
solve; at least it seems difficult to solve when we look at many of the
purely mathematical models that are, too often, not related back to the
original problem. I chose to attack the TSP in a simplistic manner in
an attempt to find one or more algorithms which would approximate a
person's intuitive approach. In so doing, I was able to find an
efficient way to "solve" the problem by producing acceptable results to
large─scale traveling salesman problems. (Note that the word
"acceptable" implies that judgments are required.)

TERMINOLOGY

Before we begin traveling around, a review of TSP terminology is in
order. We'll begin with the city, our most basic term. This is what
will be visited and may also be referred to as a town, point, node, or
vertex. One goes from one city to the next by traveling a given
distance or incurring a specified cost. The terms link, arc, and edge
are also used in place of distance or cost. The collection of all the
cities and the distances between each pair is a network or graph and is
often represented by a distance matrix. A salesman will follow a route
to visit each of the cities in the network, and this route may also be
called a tour, path, or circuit. Finally, if we remove two or more
links from the completed tour, we will break it into sub─paths or chains
of cities.

The distance matrix is a two dimensional array where the horizontal or
row vector (dimension) is identical to the vertical or column vector.
The cell found at each intersection contains the distance or cost
between the city represented by the horizontal coordinate and the city
represented by the vertical coordinate. Those familiar with graph
theory haven't seen anything new here. If you've seen a lot of these
terms for the first time, however, don't be afraid to refer back, for
I'll be using many of them interchangeably.

APPROACH

Let's now consider the problem in terms of a salesman who must visit a
dozen or so cities in the state of Hypothetica. Since the salesman must
leave and return to the same city and visit all other cities in the
process, his tour will be some sort of loop through the state.
Obviously, as a loop is unbroken, one may start at any point on the the
tour and still trace the same loop. Thus the starting city is of no
consequence; rather we want to find the best route irregardless of the
salesman's starting point.

Intuitively, one would want to travel to cities nearby and to cities
near those. We can build a procedure based on this thought by first
finding the closest two cities and then continuing to the next closest
city that hasn't been visited. This should produce a fairly good tour,
or at least would seem so at first. It may turn out that this tour
isn't optimal, but it's a reasonable solution for starters.

As the cities are exhausted from our network, we have fewer choices to
make. Intuitively, we may reason that the choices left to us may not be
as good as those we're offered in the early stages of tour building.
Our salesman may be forced to backtrack and cross previously traversed
arcs. If we check the proximity of neighboring cities, however,
especially those near the end of the initial tour, we may be able to
find improvements.

One approach we may try involves the removal of a single city from the
tour and testing it between each pair of cities in the remaining tour.
Once we've tested it in each location, we'll place it in the location
where the overall circuit cost is lowest (i.e. the shortest distance
the salesman must travel). This same approach may be tried with chains
of cities of varying lengths, but with chains we must also check for
orientation (that is try the chain both frontward and backward between
each pair of cities). This leaves us with our last thought of simply
checking the orientation of a chain in its original location. If you
think a picture is worth a thousand words, see Figure 1 so we can cut
4,000 words from this article. By testing the proximity of every city
or the proximity and orientation of every chain, we can be fairly
confident that any ill effects produced by our original technique will
be cleaned up.

If we look through related literature, we find that our tour building
and improvement techniques have already been studied and named. Our
tour building algorithm is known as the nearest neighbor or greedy
algorithm. Our tour improvement algorithms generally fall into a
category known as k─optimality or k─opt for short. A tour is said to be
k─optimal if we are unable to improve it by removing any k arcs and
replacing them with k others. Checking chain orientation in place is
the same as removing two arcs and replacing them with two others and is
thus the 2─opt algorithm. Likewise, chain proximity and orientation is
the 3─opt algorithm with point proximity a special case where the chain
to be tested has length one. Even though these improvement techniques
are related, we'll evaluate each on its own merits.

IMPLEMENTATION

To evaluate the intuitive approach we may embark upon an elaborate
mathematical analysis that may or may not produce any conclusive
results, or we may implement the solutions in practical models that may
be run against live data. If this was a scientific journal, we'd follow
the mathematical tack; but since this is a practical journal, we'll try
the modeling approach.

The main functions are programmed in their own modules called:
NearNeighbor, PointOpt, TwoOpt, Hybrid, and ThreeOpt (listings 1 through
5 respectively). NearNeighbor generates the initial tour from the
distance matrix while the other routines take turns improving it.
PointOpt performs point proximity improvement only, and TwoOpt performs
only chain orientation improvement. Hybrid combines point proximity and
chain orientation improvements while ThreeOpt adds chain proximity and
orientation. The nearest neighbor, 2─Opt, and 3─Opt algorithms have
been studied in detail within the field, but are normally regarded as
independent techniques. To my knowledge, this is the first that point
proximity has been considered either independently (PointOpt) or in
conjunction with the 2─Opt algorithm (Hybrid).

We'll use six distance matrices found in the literature to test our
procedures since these networks have known optima (or at least a best
known solution as is the case of the 48 city problem). We'll need to
know the tour length each procedure produces and the time it takes to
find the tour. We can calculate from this information how much
improvement is made by each technique and what percentage each solution
is from the known optimum. To see how the improvement techniques work
on different initial tours, we'll reverse the initial nearest neighbor
tour and generate a bad initial tour.

To capture the time, we'll need a system dependent routine. GetTime
samples the clock counter by issuing an interrupt under MS─DOS;
ElapsedTime calls GetTime and compares the new time with a previous time
passed in. Listing 6 shows GetTime implemented using the MIX C compiler
for MS─DOS and ElapsedTime in a plain vanilla implementation. For the
bad initial tour, we'll simply reverse the logic of the nearest neighbor
algorithm to generate a farthest neighbor tour (listing 7). The driver
program (listing 8) is far from elegant but gets the job done.

OBSERVATIONS

One might assume that, since it embodies all the techniques used in the
other improvement algorithms, the 3─Opt algorithm would produce a tour
at least as good as the others. Our results show that one might be
wrong in such an assumption! In fact, the 3─Opt algorithm only found the
best solution in the two smallest problems and other algorithms found
the same solutions (see Figure 2). The total time to run the three tour
building routines and the three lesser improvement routines on each is
less than the time needed to run the 3─Opt routine just once on one of
the larger problems (see Figure 3). This indicates that the 3─Opt
algorithm may not be very valuable as a tour improvement algorithm.

The independent point proximity algorithm is likewise not very valuable.
It was 15% faster than the Hybrid routine overall but fell well behind
in performance. PointOpt found the best solution in the 10 city
problem, but Hybrid found the same solution. Hybrid outperformed
PointOpt in all the other solutions so nothing is gained by running both
routines.

We can see that the TwoOpt and Hybrid routines compliment each other
very nicely. Where Hybrid didn't find the best solution, TwoOpt did.
The 2─Opt algorithm was consistently the fastest and the point proximity
2─Opt hybrid found the best answer in four of the six problems. Their
combined times plus the time to build the initial tour was comparable to
the time required to read the distance matrix on my 12Mhz AT clone with
28ms access hard drive.

One thing that may be a surprise, is that our tour improvement
algorithms are dependent upon how compatible the initial tour is with
the techniques being applied and not necessarily how close to optimum
that tour is. In all but one problem, the best improvement was found
when starting from the nearest neighbor solution. In the 42 city
problem, however, the best improvement was found by starting with the
farthest neighbor solution. In addition to being found from the nearest
neighbor solution, the same improvement was found in less time from the
farthest neighbor solution in the 10 and 20 city problems.

The MIX C compiler/linker with its .COM executable files causes some
problems for large scale applications such as the drilling machines. I
had no problem with our small to medium scale problems, but when I
compiled the program with dimensions over 100 the program ran out of
space. Dynamic storage allocation won't cure the problem since the heap
space for dynamic storage allocation and the stack space for static data
structures all come from the same pot. Answers will have to come from a
C environment that allows for .EXE executable files or the use of disk
resident dynamic arrays. The latter of these will degrade execution
time, but taking a long time to find a solution is better than taking a
short time to not find one at all! Note that by using the function
ArcCost to access distance matrix data we've made it easy to try
differing storage methods.

CONCLUSION

Following an intuitive approach to a problem and implementing that
approach can often produce very acceptable results. Though there can be
no substitute for thorough analysis, neither can there be a substitute
for experimentation and testing of hypotheses. The modularity of C with
its procedures and functions allows the building blocks of
experimentation to become the building blocks of application. With our
TSP modeling, we need only develop a new driver program to build an
efficient production package.